Analysis Of Christopher Columbus Discovered The New World...

â€Å"Christopher Columbus discovered the ‘New World’ and Europeans conquered the native lands with little resistance due to their superior weaponry.† These stories have been at the heart of the American education system for as long as American history existed. But this type of Eurocentric view does not provide the entire narrative for the events that occurred during the colonial era in the Greater Caribbean. Between Britain’s esteemed navy, France’s leadership, and Spain’s army, who would’ve guessed that mosquitoes could’ve tipped the scale of power and changed history forever? J.R. Mcneill addresses the key significance of mosquitoes in the colonial Greater Caribbean by utilizing existing information and presenting them in the format of a†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, gullies started appearing in bigger quantities due to soil erosion, and this is best described by â€Å"one downpour in November 1668 [that] opened a gully in the churchyard of Christ Church parish that carried 1,500 coffins and their contents out to sea† (McNeill 28). Moreover, not only are these marshes bad for plantations, it was also an ideal situation for mosquitoes. To make the situation even worse, the birds that were the main predators to the mosquitoes have now exited the ecosystem. Despite this, Barbados was largely free of malarial mosquitoes, but other islands weren’t so lucky. When the Europeans made their transatlantic voyages, in addition to trading slaves and commodities, yellow fever and malaria managed to sneak their way onto the slave ships. Due to the sheer quantity of slaves needed to run a sugarmill, these slave ships were often crowded beyond capacity and its cramped and damp hulls provided a haven for mosquitoes infected with numerous diseases. And these unfortunate islands became hubs for spreading malaria and yellow fever. Perhaps the best way to illustrate the deadliness of these diseases is to bring up the Haitian Revolution in St. Domingue. Soonafter the rebellions broke out in Haiti, the British Army arrived in an effort to weaken their French rival. When the army arrived, the planters and whites in general welcomed them, and so didShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesSouthern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape Gerda Lerner, Fireweed: A Political Autobiography Allida M. Black, ed., Modern American Queer History EricRead MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 Pagespage intentionally left blank Rastafari From Outcasts to Culture Bearers Ennis Barrington Edmonds 2003 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid MelbourneRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 PagesDESIGN DIRECTOR SENIOR DESIGNER SENIOR MEDIA EDITOR George Hoffman Lise Johnson Carissa Doshi Dorothy Sinclair Matt Winslow Amy Scholz Carly DeCandia Alana Filipovich Jeof Vita Arthur Medina Allison Morris This book was set in 10/12 New Caledonia by Aptara ®, Inc. and printed and bound by Courier/Westford. The cover was printed by Courier/Westford. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright  © 2009, 2006, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995, 1992, 1989, 1986, 1981, 1976 John Wiley SonsRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pages................................................................................................... 229 Telling the Truth, While Still Misleading ....................................................................................... 235 Saying Little with Lots of Words ..................................................................................................... 235 ix Persuading Without Using Reasons ..............................................................................

1984 Dystopian Society Essay - 1445 Words

In the year 1944, famous author, George Orwell, composed a novel about a dystopian society called 1984. Telescreens that could see and hear everything someone did, children who turned in their parents for ideas about overthrowing the government, and a clueless society surviving on only what the government told them were the main problems in Orwell s novel. Orwell s purpose for writing this novel was not as a prediction of what the future of society would look like, but more as a warning. He warns of the problems with advanced technology and a growing need for power among the government. This futuristic novel, about advanced technology consuming the lives of the people, brought forth many concerning thoughts about the future of society.†¦show more content†¦This is only a concern for those that have cell phones, but when will the time come when everyone, just like with telescreens in the novel, is required to carry a cell phone to â€Å"benefit† them? Technology is us ed constantly to keep people and their minds busy. â€Å"Downtime is an opportunity to fill our mind with mostly irrelevant media that does nothing to enhance the quality of our lives† (Beres, â€Å"Is Technology Destroying Happiness?†). The government s goal with technology is to keep the people busy enough and just smart enough that they don t start to question the purpose of the government. Another problem with technology is, â€Å"popular technology, despite its claim to interact and connect, breeds isolation† (Fitzpatrick, â€Å"A School Without Screens†). Most of today s public doesn t know how to interact face to face because technology has taught them it s okay to hide behind a screen. Technology may be the only thing more powerful than the human race. â€Å"Who controls the past controls the future. Who controls the present controls the past† (Orwell 35-36). Technology brings power to those who control it. In the novel, the Party is the co ntrolling group and they control what the public thinks about the past, present, and future. It wasn t enough for the Party to have physical control over the people they wanted to control thoughts.Throughout 1984, the Party constantly â€Å"thrust its hand into the past and say of this or that event, it never happened† (Orwell 35) and theShow MoreRelated1984 Dystopian Society Essay1164 Words   |  5 Pageslittle freedom to express their own opinions. This is because dictators create societies that they feel are supreme. In order to have an almighty society, each person has to think and behave the same. George Orwell created a dystopian society, Oceania, where the government was controlled by Big Brother. Winston Smith, the main character, slowly realized that the Party, or the government, was manipulating their society to make the Party immortal. 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The freedom to express ones thoughts was no longer acceptable and would not be tolerated under any circumstances. Humankind was rapidly transforming into a corrupt and evil state of mind. Even though many of Orwell’s ideas in his novel 1984 seemed completely fictional, several of theRead MoreDystopian Society: Comparing Brave New World and 1984 Essay1705 Words   |  7 PagesDystopian Society: Comparing Brave New World and 1984 Different societies have risen and fallen in the continual search for the â€Å"perfect† society. The definition of this utopia is in constant flux due to changing times and cultural values. Many works of literature have been written describing a utopian society and the steps needed to achieve it. However, there are those with a more cynical or more realistic view of society that comment on current and future trends. These individuals lookRead MoreCreating a Dystopian Society in 1984 and Brave New World Essay2001 Words   |  9 PagesDystopian Society is carved by manipulation of society Throughout many decades people have been searching for the perfect society in which everyone is happy and prosperous . Many literature and movies has been created to depict the utopia world to enable people to explore and experience the perfect society anyone could wish for. Creating a perfect world is not an easy task and this can be seen in our history . Totalitarian states arise from different countries , Stalin’s Soviet Union , Hitler’sRead MoreOne Of The First Dystopian Novels To Become Famous Was1396 Words   |  6 PagesOne of the first dystopian novels to become famous was 1984. The concept of dystopian novels is not only to entertain readers, but to let them understand the characteristics and ideas of a dystopian society. Some of these characteristics are shown through our society but at a more drastic level. Basic fears are exaggerated such as the following: distrust of others, disease, contaminated water, nuclear holocaust, etc. The reader can gain more kn owledge by finding ways in which the topics the authorRead More1984 Essay Historical Perspective674 Words   |  3 Pages1984 Essay Historical Perspective Many historical events have occurred in the past years that are occurring today. Similar events happened in the years of 1948, 1984, 2014. Dystopia has been shown in many types of governments throughout the years of 1948 to 2014. Hitler for example showed a dystopian type of government where hatred towards jews and propaganda played a big role in his government. The book named 1984 written by George Orwell, has a historical perspective. Orwell published the bookRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s The Great Gatsby 1285 Words   |  6 Pagesstories about animals, however, they contain much deeper and influential meanings. Orwell is most recognized for his portrayal of dystopian societies and how they parallel present society. Through intense allegories, Orwell unintentionally crafted novels that are applicable to the totalitarian government systems prevalent in many advanced societies today. His dystopian societies have influenced many on history and government alike, giving it time less qualities. Born as Eric Arthur Blair, George OrwellRead More1984 and V for Vendetta Comparing and Contrasting Essay754 Words   |  4 Pages1984 And V For Vendetta Comparing And Contrasting Essay George Orwells 1984 and the movie V for Vendetta both have similar views on how society is being run. Since The book 1984 was written before V for Vendetta, so perhaps V for Vendetta may have based some of its ideas on this book. Both 1984 and V for Vendetta have similarities like the way the themes and how the male protagonists are the one in charge of overturning the government. The first similarity between 1984 and V for VendettaRead More1984 Dystopian Literature1924 Words   |  8 Pagesrepresses, and rules the people; administering their freedoms, thoughts, and speech. Throughout the dystopian genre, control, or the illusion of it, is a recurring motif used throughout various forms of mediums. For this essay, I will closely examine the interconnected theme of control in dystopia, comparing different kinds of dystopian literature on how they present this idea. From George Orwell’s 1984’s struggle for characters to assert control in their lives, to Children of Men’s authoritarian rule

Women in Psychology Paper Free Essays

Women have made many contributions to the advancement of psychology, many of which have gone without notice until recent times, and some of which still goes unidentified in the field of psychology. The mention of women in the early development of psychology usually refers to them as minor contributors to a field that at one time was predominantly dominated by men. â€Å"Women of the time were subject to gender and martial prejudice† (Stipkovich, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Psychology Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now One such women who thrived in the field of psychology despite of and greatly due to the discrimination women experienced in the 1900’s is Leta Hollingworth. According to â€Å"Stipkovich (2011)†, â€Å"The remarkable path Leta Hollingworth’s life took her was instrumental in becoming a significant figure in the history of psychology of woman† (Contributions to the field of Psychology). Background Born Leta Anna Stetter, in May of 1886 in Nebraska, she was the oldest of three children. Raised on her grandparent’s farm after her mother’s death and fathers abandonment following the birth of her youngest sibling. â€Å"Leta Stetter received her early formal education in a one-room log schoolhouse, an education she later described as â€Å"excellent in every respect† (Miller, R. 1990, para. 4). Leta graduated high school in 1902, at the age of 15 she was one of eight students in the class. In high school Leta showed a talent for creative writing which she was encouraged to develop in college. Leta enrolled and attended the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, â€Å"where she quickly achieved a campus reputation in literature and creative writing and was designated Class Poet of the Class of 1906† (Miller, R. 1990, p. 145). While attending the university Leta met and became engaged to classmate Harry Levi Hollingworth. Harry graduated from the university before Leta and decided to do his graduate studies in New York at Columbia University, Leta stayed in Nebraska to finish her undergraduate work and graduated in 1906. Unable to start a career in writing as she originally intended due to financial problems, Leta took a teaching position in Nebraska and later joined Harry in New York the two were married on December 31, 1908. Leta attempted to get a job as a teacher in New York but was denied based solely on her marital status. â€Å"This was a very frustrating circumstance for the talented and educated graduate and led to the questioning of the role women play in  society† (Stipkovich, 2011). Over time Leta went on to complete her graduate studies at Columbia receiving an M. A. in 1913, Ph. D. 1916. While completing her studies in educational psychology at Columbia Leta had an opportunity to work directly with Edward Lee Thorndike. According to Stipkovich (2011), â€Å"With the environment finally allowing her to explore her academic interests, and questions about her own existence as a married woman, she pursued the study of women’s psychology and new interests in giftedness and intelligence† (A little Background). Theoretical perspective Leta became interested in psychology after questioning women’s inferiority to men. After researching the works of other psychologist she found only one assertion that could be tested scientifically. This assertion was commonly known as the â€Å"variability hypothesis,† (Benjamin, L. , 1990 p. 147). Held, L. (2010), states â€Å"The variability hypothesis posited that men exhibit greater variation than women on both physical and psychological traits, in essence suggesting that men occupied both the highest and lowest ends of the spectrum on any trait and women were doomed to mediocrity† (para.4). In order to disprove this hypothesis Leta did some research at the Clearinghouse for Mental Defectives â€Å"Hollingworth believed societal roles accounted for the differences, not innate differences† (Held, L. 2010 p. 3). She conducted an experiment over a three month time period on both men and women from a behaviorist perspective which essential proved there was no decrease in women’s performance during the course of their cycle. While teaching at Columbia Leta started to express an interest in the study of exceptional children. While working with these children she discovered most of them were averagely intelligent but suffered from adjustment problems due to adolescents. In 1928 Leta published â€Å"The Psychology of the Adolescent† once again done from a behaviorist perspective further research should children with high intellect could be problem children, causing her to ask what special programs have been developed for them in public schools? (Benjamin, L. , 1990). â€Å"She worked on assessment tools for early identification of the intellectually gifted, and inevitably her work led her to the development of educational methods for these children† Benjamin, L., 1990). Contributions to the field of psychology Leta Hollingworth is a contributor to three specific fields of psychology. Leta’s recognition of the challenges faced by women set precedent to a new field of psychology: the psychology of women. Barbaro (2002), â€Å"Because of her work, future women would not have to deal with unchecked acquisitions of innate mediocrity or menstrual disability in their pursuit of scientific eminence† (Contributions to Psychology). In 1921 Leta Hollingworth was cited in â€Å"American Men of Science† for her research on the psychology of women (Held, L. 2010 p. 15). The other field of psychology Leta Hollingworth was a great contributor to the psychology of the exceptional child which led to her much known involvement and influence in school psychology. Due to her studies on the gifted children she was able to develop methods to recognize gifted children and aide in the development of a school curriculum better meeting their needs. Hollingworth’s writings on gifted children, special education, adolescence, and mental retardation were inspirational for over twenty years (Miller, R. , 1990). In clinical psychology she disproved the â€Å"variability hypothesis† her examination on both male and female infant craniums proved that while the males were slightly larger if a difference in variability existed it favored females (Held, L. 2010 p. 4). After the disproving of the â€Å"variability hypothesis† Leta Hollingworth worked in the field of clinical psychology part-time for twenty years. Other contribution to psychology are noted publishing’s such as â€Å"Gifted Children: Their Nature and Nurture† (1926) this book was based on the results of her study on gifted children and â€Å"Children Above 180 IQ† (1942) this was Leta Hollingworth’s last publication and was completed after her death by her husband, Harry L. Hollingworth (Held, L. 2010 p. 7). Conclusion Leta Hollingworth was a women extraordinary for her time. She not let her troublesome childhood prevent her from gaining an education instead she used her less than perfect up bring to develop a talent in creative writing. When she found herself unable to work doing what at the time seemed like her natural calling she went on to teach, only to find her marital status would prevent her from doing so. This turning point in her life was discouraging but, with the support of her husband went on to gain an education, and dismantle one of the theories that prevent her and other women of her time from equal treatment. Leta went on from their developing not only one but three types of psychology that had not yet been explored in-depth, the psychology of women, educational psychology, and the psychology of the gifted child. Her work in the field of psychology not only furthered the field it changed the way women were looked upon, and the education of children both gifted and non-gifted. Instead of becoming a victim of her era she went on to become a pioneering female psychologist of her time â€Å"were she to observe contemporary society, she would be gravely disappointed that in the past 50 years there has been so little progress in changing societal attitudes toward the gifted, and that women, particularly gifted women, still face so many impediments to achievement and recognition† (Silverman, L. K. 1992 p. 11). How to cite Women in Psychology Paper, Papers

Academic Excellence Guarantees free essay sample

A Successful LifeIn this era of globalization, a good education is very important for each and everyoneof us in order to have a better and successful life in the future. Students in school andcollege have always been reminded to strive for excellence in their academic so that theycan graduate with flying colors and can easily get a better job compare to those who didnot did well in their academic.In my opinion, academic excellence does guarantees asuccessful life. Here are some of my reason for why academic excellence guarantees asuccessful life.First of all, a person with high education can easily decide what they want in their lifecompare to the person with low education because how educated we are influence thedecision making in our life. Being well educated too gives us the advantage to choose agood career because through our education, we can identify our own capabilities andwhat we are really good at. We will write a custom essay sample on Academic Excellence Guarantees or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Secondly, a person who have graduated from university are guaranteed to get a better career and good salary compare to the person who did not finish their studies. A personwho have owned their diploma or degree certificate have a higher opportunity to get the job than a person who did not owned any of the certificate and only depend on their jobexperience. This is because it shows that the person with the certificate have a better understanding and is capable of finishing a given task with less doubt than the personwith no certificate at all.Finally, a person who are well educated guarantees to have a better life compare to the person who only depends on their looks and talent. Good looks and talent may be anassets for certain people to be successful, however good looks can fade away anytime asit is not permanent while of course talent is a big part, but you need to be really lucky for example to get good opportunities to success. Whereas high knowledge will alwaysremain in you no ma tter how old you get or how lucky you are because with educationtheres no limitation in what can we do.In conclusion, I do agree that excellence academic guarantees a successful life becausenot only education can influence us to a better decision making in life but it also canguarantees us to get a better career and remain in us for eternal.

Turning Point Title Napoleons Retreat From Moscow Essays

Turning Point Title: Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow Place and Date of Event: June 22 1812 Napoleon and the Grande Arme invade Russia. December 18 1812 what is left of the Grande Arme make it back to France. Key Individuals and Roles: Napoleon: Emperor of France who lead the French Arme and it's allies into Russia. Barclay de Tolly: Commanded 127,000 Russian troops at the start of the invasion. Marshal Kutusov: Russian commander who replaced Barclay in mid August. Prince Bagration: Commanded 43,000 Russian troops during invasion. Wairy Louis Constant: Napoleon's valet, who wrote down what he saw and remembered about the retreat. Description of the Event: Napoleon took 500,000 infantry, 100,000 cavalry, and 1,400 field and siege guns for the troops on his invasion of Russia. He went up against Barclays' and Bagrations troops. Napoleon's strategy was to over power the Russians and drive them back as far as possible. June 24 French cross Niemen River at Kovno and Grodna and push Barclay back. Four days French capture Vilna and stayed there till July 16. Big mistake because this allowed Russians to unite forces at Smolenskby on August 1. Two weeks later Russians attack. Russians come away from battle in good shape, but the French come away in awful condition. Many troops are ill with different diseases and battle wounds. Russians replace Barclay with Kutusov. French keep trying to push forward. Another big mistake, they should have waited for winter to clear and attacked in the spring. Invade all the way to Moscow. When they get there Russians all ready burnt it to the ground so French have no shelter to stay in. Napoleon stay at Moscow for 6 weeks. Then the retreat begins. The French soldiers getting sick of war and kind of turn into a big crowd of men. Then the Russians attack them when they are so unorganized. End of November French able to reach Beresina River. All bridges out because water high and ice was taking them out. French try and make bridges as fast as possible, all the while the Russians are getting closer. Crossing the bridges was a scene of panic. The French soldiers were told to leave everything behind and make a break for it. The Russians stop pursuing the French at the Niemen. French did a good job of killing themselves. Some froze in the Russian winter, some were trampled getting over the bridge, others were killed by the Russians, and some were too tired to make it back to France. Very few troops from Napoleon's Arme made it back to France. Significance in World History: Napoleon is hated by almost all his Arme after this failure. He left his troops to die in Russia and people don't forget that. Countries under Napoleon's rule now feel confident they can beat him. He suffers his final loss in Waterloo and is imprisoned on Elba by the English. If Napoleon had not lost in Russia he most likely would have made France the biggest empire ever, that would still exist today.

The Renaissance Art Essays - Renaissance Painters, Free Essays

The Renaissance Art Essays - Renaissance Painters, Free Essays The Renaissance Art Ms. McSharry Humanities 26 September 2014 The Renaissance Art During the Renaissance, the way people saw the world was different from the way people in nowadays do. Renaissance was the time of reformation. The value of money started to increase, and many philosophers, artists, and scientists came up with new ideas about religion and humankind. Not only the Renaissance was a time of cultural movement and innovation, but also it was a time of political turmoil, religious conflict and chaos. People became more materialistic and individualistic. They often displayed their ideas and the ways of their lives through philosophy, literature, and especially art. Many artists, including the most famous artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, put their intentions and messages in their works, and many works of Renaissance art had similar styles of drawing and were usually depicted in religious images. The humanities, the significances, and the lives during the time were all shown in the Renaissance art. In European society during the Renaissance, capitalism and money became popular and significant. Even though the people still praised for God, at the time, they praised more for money. Their ultimate goal was gaining more money. Their loving money was also depicted in Renaissance art. Quentin Matsys The Money Lender and His Wife depicts how important the money was. In the drawing, a man who is counting his money and his wife who is reading her Bible are sitting together. However, the wifes focus is only on the money, not on her Bible. She is distracted from reading her Bible because all her intention and interest are concentrated on the money her husband has. The man and his wife are both fascinated and are fully focused on their money. The aspect of their action shows that the money became more interesting than religion. However, religion was still vital to the Renaissance period, and many artworks were depicted in religious images. Most of the artists used similar styles and common topics in their religious drawings. They normally drew Jesus at the center, Mary next to Jesus, and the twelve disciples beside him. In those religious drawings, Jesus and Mary were always dressed in red and blue clothes because the colors were only used for important figures. Leonardo da Vincis The Last Supper is a typical religious picture created in the early Renaissance. In his painting, Jesus is sitting at the center of the table. He is also wearing blue and red clothes, and next to him, Mary is also wearing blue and red clothes. The twelve disciples divided into two groups of six are sitting on each of Jesus left and right sides. In this picture, there are also three windows behind Jesus which points out the Trinity. His drawing also has a story in itself. This is the moment of the twelve disciples focusing on Jesus, and Jesus making a statement: One of you shall betray me (John 13:21). It is easily detected that only one guy among the twelve disciples is putting his elbow down on the table, hinting that he is going to betray Jesus. Like da Vincis painting does, every religious painting has its own message or story and the common painting style of Renaissance art. Many other artists also used similar methods and skills that da Vinci used. In Michelangelos The Last Judgment, the God and Mary wearing red and blue clothes are at the center of the painting. This paintings story is about heaven and hell. People sent to the hell in the bottom part of the painting all look distressed and angry. Even the colors and moods used in the upper and bottom part are notably different. In the upper part, people are wearing clothes, and the mood is brighter, but in bottom part, people are not dressed, and the mood is also gloomy. This painting is not only depicting the religious aspect, but also depicting the aspect of life and humanity. The importance of philosophy was also often shown in the Renaissance art. Raphael who was an active proponent of philosophy displayed his philosophical ideal in his painting School of Athens. In his painting, Plato and Aristotle, the most famous philosopher and scientist, are

Reading Responses 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading Responses 4 - Essay Example She felt like she had nowhere to go, but standing still in her grief was not an option. â€Å"Two Kinds† – A young Chinese-American girl and her Chinese-born mother live together in America. The mother, who lost her first husband and children in China, seems to have pinned all her hopes on her stubborn daughter. Hopeful that her daughter will become a piano-playing genius, she forces her to take lessons – from a man who turns out to be deaf. The young girl fails miserably at the recital, she and her mother fight, before the young girl makes a mean comment about her mother’s now dead family. They never speak of the piano again, but when her mother dies, she plays one last time. This story surprised me with its sense of humor, especially with the mother who would constantly test her daughter to see if she had some strange gift, like the ability to guess the weather. â€Å"House on Mango Street† – This is a very short story about a girl explaini ng how her family once moved every year from one awful apartment to another, all while dreaming of the great home they would someday own. The house on Mango Street they own, but it is a sad little house, not much better than the last, and one they hope to move from soon. The nun in this story made me angry the way she acted shocked at the horrible condition of the girl’s former home.

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT - Essay Example group of musicians like the group of three trumpeters, saxophonists, and trombone players and the soloists like the pianist or cellist or the drummer take turns to improvise the piece based on what was performed by the musician(s) before him. Riff refers to short relaxed phrases being repeated over varied melodies. In this piece the complex riff structure in the head arrangements or collaborative arrangement that was memorized and not written down. The visual appeal in the video is remarkable. The video displays the musicians’ prowess and their rhythmic motions to the music mark the beginning of the swing era. The swing music was gaining popularity at the time and the Jazz Big Bands were a reflection of the times. The trumpet solo was very significant. The musician starts from low tone and displays a wide range in tone during his solo. He is preceded by the saxophone soloist and succeeded by the piano solo. The trumpet lends to the bouncy beat and light mood of the music piece and is very well placed in the sequence. The visual elements as discussed previously is enhanced with the lighting effects where the lights fall on each sectional as they play out their piece starting with saxophone players, the trombones and their head motions imitating the music and then the section of trumpet players. The One O’Clock Jump ends with all the players playing a repetitive phrase with variations in tone and melody and the catchy beat almost like a dance beat lends to the charm of the song. Why this jazz song became so popular is not difficult to understand. The overall performance is quite astounding. The light and fluffy rhythm has an energetic feel that is easy to swing to and uplifts the mood instantly. The complex riffs played out by the ensemble is very melodious and the sequences played out all seem to fit in perfectly and hence it is no wonder why it has come to be considered as one of the best songs of the

Philosophy Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Philosophy Reflection - Essay Example Reality is here on Earth during our lifetime. Reality as I believe it to be and as shown in â€Å"Allegory of the Cave† and The Matrix is a personal experience. The people standing on the wall in the cave in â€Å"Allegory of the Cave† live the shadow reality. The people on the walk above them live in the reality of the sun. This is a reality of perception. In The Matrix people live in a matrix of make believe that is perceived to be real or unplugged in the reality of Zion. Once again the reality is a personal experience. Neo experienced both realities after receiving knowledge of Zion. The two stories take a different opinion on transferring to a different reality. Plato believed the prisoner that went into the light would want to return to darkness, but would not be able to adapt back in the cave. The prisoner would want things the way it was before being freed. In The Matrix Neo did not want to go back into the matrix after being unplugged. Not only did Neo not want to go back, he embraced the new knowledge of his reality to become more than what he was in the matrix. The prisoner remained the same, but Neo evolved. In my opinion, I believe it depends on the person and circumstances if a person remains the same or evolves. If different realities exist, different ethical implications would apply. For example, Neo was trying to free humans from the matrix. In Zion, Neo was a hero, but in the matrix he was an outlaw. The prisoner in the cave was being punished or jailed, but in the light the prisoner was free. Laws in Zion, the matrix, cave, and outside the cave were different. For example, in Zion people were allowed to go into the matrix to fight, but not to have a pleasurable life. In the matrix people were not allowed to know they could be unplugged. In the cave people played games about the shadows due to their immobility. The people outside the cave moved about freely. It would not be fair to judge Neo in Zion about things done in the

Effective Leadership Styles of School Principles

Effective Leadership Styles of School Principles In order to be effective, schools require skilled leaders. The role of the principal is the key to a schools ability to meet the needs of the teacher it serves. However, the impact and the influence a principal has on teacher commitment is not a simple relationship. Principals in todays schools require the person in the position to carry out a countless number of functions as well act in a variety of different roles. As DeLucca, et al. (1997) found, the literature on educational leadership clearly emphasizes that the principal is a highly complex and demanding role (p. 105). Fullan (1991) described the changing role of the principals over the past two decades as becoming dramatically more complex (p. 144). The study of transformational leadership in the context of principals school leadership is relatively new. Building upon the work of Burns (1978), Bass (1985), and Bass and Avolio (1994), Leithwood (1994) developed a transformational model of school leadership. Leithwood states that transformational leadership skills are necessary skills for principals if they are to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Recent studies completed by various scholars in the field have indicated that administrators who demonstrate a transformational leadership style have teaching staff with increased job satisfaction, a greater sense of teaching efficacy, demonstrate higher levels of organizational commitment, and have less staff turnover (Griffith, 2004; Yu, et al., 2002; Ross Gray, 2006). However, strategic leadership is the main role of the principal while pedagogical leadership is the responsibility of the teachers (Crowther et al., 2000 and, 2002; Smylie-Hart, 1999). Their relationships have been described by Crowther et al. (2000) as parallel leadership. Teacher leaders and administrator leaders work in parallel and develop new roles and relationships within the school. Strategic leadership theory suggested that strategic leaders are individuals who have the ability to think strategically by envisioning, anticipating, innovating, maintaining flexibility, and mobilizing others to adopt changes which provide the organization with a competitive advantage (Elenkov, et al, 2005; Ireland Hitt, 2005). Strategic leaders enable organizational staff to exploit diverse opportunities to adapt and respond to environmental uncertainty. According to Ireland and Hitt, strategic leadership theory advocates that, companies are a reflection of their top managers, and, in particular , of the chief executive officers (p. 65). Hence, Davies (2004) had identified nine factors associated with the strategic leadership styles of school heads. In his terms, Davies classified these nine factors into two parts: firstly, the ability of a school head to undertake organizational activity (strategic competence, strategic orientation, strategic translation, strategic alignment, and strategic interaction), and secondly, his or her individual characteristics (restless, absorptive, adaptive, wise). Teacher commitment is crucial to effective schools, teacher satisfaction and retention. There has been increasing interest among scholars in the concept of commitment and the study of the commitment of several professionals such as students (Staw, 1976; Meyer Allen, 1987). Educational researchers have focused on commitment to the organization in this case, teachers (Firestone, 1990; Tyree, 1996; Nais, 1981). They call this phenomenon teacher commitment, denoting commitment to the school (Ryes, 1989). Commitment is part of a teachers affective or emotional reaction to their experience in a school setting (Ebmeire Nicklaus, 1999). According to the related literature, in these circumstances employees can develop affective commitment: in a more decentralized organizational structure (Robbins, 1997), in an organizational structure having an open and honest communication network (Zangaro, 2001), in an organizational culture encouraging participation (Parnell Crandall, 2003), when they h ave the opportunity to participate in decision-making (Somech Bogler, 2002), especially in strategically important decisions (Lines, 2004; Celep, 2000), and when they are affected by the outcomes of these decisions (Torka, 2004), when they have the opportunity to participate in the strategic planning process (Oswald et al., 1994), when they are provided with autonomy (Firestone Pennell, 1993), when they have the opportunity to acquire knowledge and other resources in the organization (McDermott et al., 1996), when strategic objectives (Enriquez et al., 2001), expectations (OCreevy et al., 1997) and the vision (Oswald et al., 1994) of the organization are communicated to them, when they are treated fairly and justly (Martin Bennett, 1996; Naumann et al., 1998), when they have adequate payment (Abdulla Shaw, 1999), when there is a congruence of ethical values between employee and organization (and/or manager or supervisor) (Schwepker, 1999; Peterson, 2003; Janssen, 2004), when the y have a supportive, facilitative and hearty leader (Kidd Smewing, 2001; Hui et al., 2004) and when they find their leader (or supervisor) trustworthy (Perry, 2004). STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Many researchers have pointed out that in order to be effective in the current context of school improvement, principals need to conform to the role as transformational leaders who have the potential for building high levels of commitment to the complex and uncertain nature of the restructuring agenda (Caldwell, 1992;, Hallinger, 1992;, Leithwood Jantzi, 1997;, Murphy Hallinger, 1992). There are differences in what these roles might include, that is, what the dimensions of principal leadership style are. Building the dimensional measure of principal leadership style, thus, motivated the researcher to conduct this study in the hope that it will contribute to our understanding of the principals transformational leadership style which is considered a foundation of school effectiveness. Another important issue that has not been adequately examined by previous research is the underlying model of the strategic leadership styles of principals. Waldman and Javidan (2002) indicated that little research exists on strategic leadership and its influence on organizational performance. The general problem is that contextual factors influence leadership behaviors across all levels of the organization, thus constraining leaders to adopt behaviors driven by external and internal demands. (Antonakis House, 2002;, Carroll, 2002;, Waldman, et al, 2001;, Waldman Javidan, 2002). It has been widely recognized that many discouraged school behaviours are, to an important extent, due to the low commitment of teachers. Teachers who experience this deficiency would engage in a variety of work behaviours that only reinforce their task failure (Rosenholtz, 1989). In an effort to overcome this, teacher commitment becomes necessary. Leithwood et al. (1994) suggest that committed teachers are less likely to leave the organization and have a desire to improve practices in an effort to realize the schools mission. Therefore, teacher commitment should be examined because it leads to greater job effort and involvement. (Porter, et al, 1974;, Rosenholtz, 1989). Since there is no specific style that is best for all situations, developing skills in selection of appropriate transformational and strategic leadership styles need to be emphasized because if these skills are poor, the consequence can be quite negative. Ubben and Hughes (1992) postulate that effective leadership depends on understanding the condition of a problem situation and assessing correctly how much participation is required to be successful and the form that this participation should take. An incorrect response to the demand of a situation may have a negative impact on-teachers personal satisfaction and may consequently affect their enthusiasm and commitment. Many times staff or teachers are dissatisfied with principals, not because of the nature of their decision, but because of the leadership style used (Leadership Management Development Center, 1997). Moreover, the Ministry of Education in Thailand enforces school principals to obtain quality assurance certification once every five years, where the schools need to ensure the system is developed in accordance with the standards, criteria, principles and guidelines as stipulated in the educational Act. In recent years, the average points obtained in the national test shows that, Islamic private schools in three provinces of southern Thailand ranked bottom compared to other schools in national ranking as far as academic achievement is concerned. (Secretary Board of Educational Office, 2007). In addition, Sermsak and his colleagues (2004) noted, the Islamic private secondary school principals lack of skills especially in educational management. As a member of an educational organization, the researcher considers that it is important to conduct this study. In this study, the researcher focuses on the principals in Islamic private secondary schools in southern Thailand. As mentioned abo ve, principals are educational leaders and teachers are practical instruments in achieving the schools goals. Conducting a study to identify which is the most effective principal leadership style (transformational leadership or strategic leadership) and its effect on teacher commitment is believed to be a worthwhile study. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theory that this study has tried to build was based on the foundations of several existing theories in the literature. Firstly, the study reviewed various dimensions of leadership styles from previous studies by Barnett et al. (2001), Chui et al. (1996), Janzi and Leithwood, (1996), and Leithwood et al. (1996) considering-the present school context in southern Thailand. Five relevant dimensions of leadership styles are specifically proposed to be used in this study (Liethwood, 1996). The five dimensions of transformational leadership styles are visionary leadership, individual orientation, structural leadership, empowering leadership and role modelling Secondly, the study reviewed the strategic leadership styles (Davies, 2004; Davies Davies, 2004). There are nine categories of strategic leadership characteristics. In his terms, Davies classified these nine factors into two categories; individual characteristics (restlessness, absorption, adaptiveness/adaptibility and wisdom) and organizational capability (strategic competence, strategic orientation, strategic translation, strategic alignment and strategic interaction. Thirdly, the study reviewed a theory from perspective of the affective approach on commitment. Commitment is defined as the relative strength of a persons identification with and involvement in an organization (Mowday et al., 1982). According to Buchanan (1974), commitment is a partisan or affective attachment to the aims and values of an organization, to ones role in relation with these aims and values and to an organization for its own sake, Further, according to the cost-benefit approach, commitment is a result of the perception of benefit associated with staying in and the perception of cost associated with leaving from an organization (Kanter, 1968). From the normative approach, commitment is the aggregate internalized normative pressures to conduct in a manner which meets organizational objectives and interests (Wiener, 1982). It extensively examines the influences of transformational leadership and strategic leadership on teacher identification, involvement, and loyalty to the commitment (Abdulhakam, 2005). The three factors of teacher commitment are identification, involvement and loyalty. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Based on the statement of research problem and the theoretical model as seen in Figure 1, the objectives of the study are as follows: To examine the factors underlying the transformational leadership styles of school principals in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the factors underlying the strategic leadership styles of school principals in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the factors underlying the teacher commitment of school teachers in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the effect of transformational leadership style of school principals in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the effect of strategic leadership style of school principals in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the effect of transformational leadership of school principals on teacher commitment through strategic leadership style in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. To examine the effect of strategic leadership style of school principals on teacher commitment through transformational leadership style in Islamic private secondary schools in Southern Thailand. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES As stated earlier, the objectives of the study are to examine the factors underlying the transformational leadership and strategic leadership styles on teacher-commitment and to examine which leadership style which is dominant among the Islamic private secondary school principals. Thus, the hypotheses of the study are as follows: H1: Transformational leadership styles of school principals are represented by visionary, individual orientation, structural leadership, empowering leadership, and role modelling. H2: Strategic leadership styles of school principals are represented by restlessness, absorption, adaptiveness/adaptability, wisdom, strategic competence, strategic orientation, strategic translation, and strategic alignment. H3: Teacher commitment factors are represented by identification, involvement, and  loyalty. H4: The transformational leadership style of school principals directly and significantly affects teacher commitment. H5: The strategic leadership style of school principals directly and significantly affects teacher commitment. H6: The transformational leadership style of school principals positively and significantly affects teacher commitment through strategic leadership style. H7: The strategic leadership style of school principals positively and significantly affects teacher commitment through transformational leadership style. RESEARCH DESIGN This research adopted a quantitative approach as described by Creswell (2003), by emphasizing the utilization of quantitative surveys to determine if the effects existed between the variables, strategic leadership and transformational leadership styles, and teacher commitment as perceived by Islamic private secondary school teachers in three provinces in Southern Thailand. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is used to determine to what extent the model of hypothesized effects is supported, and how well a hypothesized conceptual model fits the associated data. The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is preferred because many previous studies supported the employment of SEM in this kind of research (see e.g. Clegg et al. 1997, Neilson 1997). SEM is also selected because of its ability to define and test a comprehensive System Contingency Approach (Hiltz, 1994) type of theoretical models. For instance Chin (1998, vii) has mentioned that, when applied correctly, SEM-based procedures have substantial advantages over first-generation techniques such as principal component analysis, factors analysis, discriminant analysis, or multiple regression because of the greater flexibility that researcher has for the interplay between theory and data. Compared to these first generation techniques often used in these types of analysis, some of the advantages of the SEM include the ability to: (1) estimate the direct, indirect, and total effects of variables; (2) define and investigate relationships among latent constructs; (3) estimate the variance accounte d for in each latent construct by other variables in the model; and (4) estimate error terms associated with each observed and latent variable (Heck and Wolcott 1997; Li, Harmer Duncan, Acock and Boles 1998). Research methods of the study consist of two steps; firstly, a hypothesized model will be developed by reviewing related literatures. The model will be assessed by educational experts. Secondly, the developed learning process reform model will be validated using the SEM to analyze the data collected from the Islamic private secondary school teachers in three provinces in Southern Thailand (Narathiwat, Yala, and Pattani,) Instrumentation In addition, at the end of the questionnaire there is an open space, where respondents have the opportunity to write about their experiences on commitment or comment on the questionnaire or the study in general. The Thai language questionnaire is filled out anonymously and it took about 20 minutes to complete. Validity and Reliability Content validity The validity of the measurement-items will be assessed in order to determine if a measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the construct under consideration. Two types of validity checks were performed in the initial stages of scale development: (1) Content Validity and (2) Construct Validity (Hair et al., 2006). Construct validity Construct validity or factorial validity, describes the logic of items which comprise measures of social concepts; this refers to the extent to which the empirical definition of the construct corresponds to the conceptual definition of the construct (Hair et al., 2006). Two types of validity were used to assess Construct Validity: (i) Convergent Validity and (ii) Discriminant Validity. Reliability The Cronbachs Alpha value is used to assess the reliability parameters. It provides a summary of the intercorrelations that exist among the set of items. Any suspect measurement-items will be removed. For this research study, the expected Cronbachs Alpha value is above than 0.7 as suggested by Hair et al. (2006), implying a statistically acceptable internal consistency reliability. Population and Sample The population in this study is Islamic private secondary school teachers in three provinces in Southern Thailand who teach in the school that are generally based on the Western Educational model. A simple random sampling is used to select the participants. The expected margin of error (accuracy) should  ± 4 % and confidence interval of 95% (Ferguson, 1981; Vockell Asher, 1995). All survey instrument will mailed to and administered by the Principal and Manager for administration for the respective schools. All completed survey instruments will return to researcher using enclosed envelopes. Data analysis method and Statistical technique This study will employed Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques to determine the extent to which the model of the hypothesized effects is supported. All the statistical procedures are performed using SPSS 11.5 and AMOS 16.0. SEM evaluates how well a hypothesized conceptual model fits the associated data. Sometimes SEM is called a latent variable causal modeling because it is used to test causal models and theories, and because it involves the measurement of latent variables. The SEM is usually viewed as a confirmatory rather than as an exploratory procedure. It can also be seen as a family of statistical techniques which incorporates and integrates path analysis and factor analysis. The model consists of two parts, the measurement model and the structural model. The measurement model specifies how latent variables or hypothetical constructs depend upon or are indicated by the observed variables. It describes the measurement properties (reliabilities and validities) of the observed variables. The structural model instead specifies the causal relationships among the latent variables. By causal what is meant is the assumption that, everything else being constant, a change in the variable at the tail of the arrow will result in a change in the variable at the head of the arrow (Loehlin,1987, p.4). SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Result of this study are pictured to provide empirical data on factors of effective leadership styles among Islamic private secondary school principals in Southern Thailand that have not been fully studied. Therefore, this study will fill this research need. Thus, the results of this study are expected to help in the understanding of teachers and principals which is in accordance with effective leadership styles. The findings are extremely important to understand or determine the effect or failure of factors affecting the implementation of principal leadership styles both in terms of on transformational leadership and strategic leadership styles as perceived by the teachers. Such information can help to improve the strategy in order to accomplish school success. Finally, this study will aid teacher educators, administrators, professional development coordinators, and government officials to adequately prepare, train, and support principals so they may become effective Islamic principals in line with the current educational reform endeavour as intended by the Ministry of Education in Thailand. These considerations make this study worthwhile. DEFINITION OF TERMS Principal Leadership Behaviour The behaviour on the part of principals that transforms change in their followers through visionary leadership, individual orientation, structural leadership, empowering leadership, and role modelling. Strategic Leadership It is defined as educational executives who adopt a new way of thinking and acting. More than ever before, strategic educational leadership depends upon a restlessness, absorption, adaption, wisdom, strategic competence, strategic orientation, strategic translation, strategic alignment, and strategic interaction Teacher commitment It is defined as the relative strength of teachers identification with, involvement with, and loyalty in a school organization. In this study, teacher commitment is measured primarily by the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) developed by Mowday and his colleagues (1979) and also by selected items from other scale developers (e.g., Allen Meyer, 1990; Buchanan, 1974; Blau, 1985; Cook Wall, 1980). Islamic Private School (IPS) The schools, which are established by private individuals, offering both religion and secular subjects are fully subsidized or partly subsidized, or not subsidized at all. Those schools that are not subsidized enjoy a certain degree of freedom in educational operation and organizing educational activities (e.g. manpower, finance, and material resources). The present study deals with the first category of schools (fully subsidized) whose educational activities are under the governments supervision.

Ernest Hemingway Essay -- essays research papers

Ernest Hemingway: A Literary Marvel â€Å"One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth forever . . . The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to the place where he arose . . . The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to his circuits . . . .All the rivers run into the sea; ye the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again.† (Ecclesiastes 1:4-7)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ernest Hemingway’s style of writing is a unique form. In almost all of his novels the protagonist is a war veteran, which he himself was. He was known to travel the world. These places sparked the imagination to create novels that led to a Nobel Prize for literature. To better understand the impact of Ernest Hemingway as an American author, one must have a description of his background, a critical analysis of his work The Sun Also Rises, and his impact and importance upon the literary world. Ernest Hemingway was known as a simple, creative writer and person. Leonard Unger wrote, â€Å"He had an extraordinary reputation as a colorful human being.† He was born July 2, 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois. His father Dr. Clarence â€Å"Ed† Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace, taught piano and voice lessons. He spent summers in upper Michigan, where he found a passion for hunting and fishing. After graduating from Oak Park High, ...

“A Visit of Charity” by Eudora Welty Essay

Is Eudora Welty successful in showing how human beings can be more interested in their own personal gains than the needs of others? Marian didn’t really want to visit the home for the elderly but she is a Campfire Girl and by taking out the time to go, she will gain points for offering her time to charity work. A gift of flowers was something that Marian brought to the home in order to make her visit look more genuine, but the apple that she brought; she hid outside so that none would think it was also a gift. There was no special person that she wanted to visit, she only wanted to do the job that she came for, earn her point and leave. She wears her Campfire Girls cap to show who she is and she is very afraid to be around a bunch of older people that she has never met, before, but the added point means so much to her that she is willing to visit this strange home. She is more interested in what she can gain from this visit than what she can offer to others. Addie wasn’t thrilled by Marian’s visit. She was a cranky old lady who didn’t even like her roommate and couldn’t stand to hear her talk about a bunch of nothing, all the time. Marian had pretty, yellow hair which she wore a white cap over and she dressed in her red coat as she observed the two women in the nursing home. She had a job to perform and so much to do in her life as she watched the two ladies who had nothing but each other. (Welty, 1980) In â€Å"A Visit of Charity†, Eudora Welty uses Marian as a character who acts in ways that many of us do at certain times in our lives, in performing deeds that are solely for ourselves, and sometimes we forget about the feelings of others. Welty demonstrates in this story that we need to not only try to work toward our own goals but at the same time, we need to consider the thoughts and emotions of others who are less fortunate. Marian is the girl who Welty chose to show that people, especially young individuals, sometimes forget about more important things as we search for awards and points that make us look and feel better about ourselves. To truly feel better about ourselves, we must consider the feelings of others and then we gain the biggest reward of all; knowing that we made someone else’s day a little brighter and more fulfilling. Marian still had many lessons to learn, in life about human kindness, and as she takes a big bite out of the apple, she shows that she had been more interested in her own personal gain in this visit. The author made you think about others in her writing. Eudora Welty clearly showed the selfishness that one can see in Marian’s visit to the nursing home and how she had so much to learn about the true meaning of sharing and giving of yourself in helping others who are less fortunate. I believe that Eudora Welty clearly showed that human beings are sometimes very capable of seeking out their own personal gain in life and are highly capable of not considering the feelings of others, as we do. Reference Page Welty, Marian. (1980) â€Å"A Visit of Charity†. Library of America. A Visit of Charity by Eudora Welty Essay Irony is the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning. Eudora Welty successfully uses this literary technique to elucidate the theme of the story, â€Å"A Visit of Charity†. The title â€Å"A Visit of Charity† is rather ironic. Charity means to show kindness and sympathy towards others; however, no one in this story does such a thing. There are no charity from Marian’s, the nurse’s, the two old ladies, and the whole society’s point of view. How can there be charity when the old ladies are isolated from the society. In the story, Marian, â€Å"a young Campfire girl†, sets out a visit to the Old Lady House. She wears â€Å"a red coat and her straight yellow hair is hanging down loose from the pointed white cap all the little girls are wearing this year.† This suggests us that she is not a self-conscious individual. She pays the visit for unquestioning duty since all other campfire girls do so. Her motive is also for the points, which reward on her project. The author also gives way to Marian’s selfish nature when she states to the nurse that â€Å"I have to pay a visit to some old lady.† She shows little respect in the way she phrases her statement. By saying she has to pay a visit reinforces us think that she is there not of her own free will. She does not care who she visits, just as long as the person is an elderly woman. Another irony is used to help explaining the theme of the story as Marian enters the old ladies’ room. When Marian looks around the room, she feels like â€Å"being caught in a robber’s cave, just before being murdered.† She thinks the old ladies are robbers who are trying to steal her perception of the world; however, do they really steal Marian’s view of world? No, I think Marian gets fear because the old ladies give her a broader and truer sense of the reality, which she is reluctant to accept. â€Å"A visit of Charity† by Eudora Welty Essay In the short story, â€Å"A visit of Charity† by Eudora Welty, a fourteen -year old Campfire girl whose name is Marian, visits an elderly home to earn points. The way Marian slowly makes her way from the bus stop to the nursing home shows reluctance. The author’s purpose was to describe a young child’s experience with the elderly through emotions and descriptions of her actions. The author encloses several lurid details to help the readers understand how awful this experience was for the child. The title contradicts the meaning of the story, charity means generosity or kindness towards others, and no one in this story carries that out. People’s selfishness and insensitivity can blind them from humanity and the needs of others. The setting is a winter’s day at a home for elderly women. Outside of the home, there are â€Å"prickly dark shrubs with which the city had beautified the home†. These surroundings imply coldness, and abandonment. The ambiance points to the feeling of fear. The floors inside the building illustrate the awkwardness. The room that Marian ends up visiting is dark, the shade is drawn, and excess amounts of furniture. The wet smell of everything and the wet appearance of the bare floor imply that the cramped room is a more suitable for barn animals rather than humans. Marian compares the room to a robbers cave and the two women as the robbers. The setting of a story assists in painting a mental picture, which draws the reader into the story. (42) Characters bring a story to life; they help the reader connect with the story and its surroundings. The story begins with the young girl who is fearful of the home. The story leads the reader to believe that Marian is the protagonist, and the elderly home is the antagonist. Marian is a self-conscious, submissive, and harsh. She refers to one of the elderly women as an object to be used and discarded when she announces the purpose of her visit. â€Å"I’m a Campfire Girl†¦I have to pay a visit to some old lady†. These words and her frequent thoughts about the points she will get for the visit reveal her real reason for coming, self-gain. An old woman â€Å"Any will do† is an impersonal thing with no identity or personality. She also refers to them as animals in their motions and appearances. When the  girl runs out, she notices that the nurse is reading a Field & Stream magazine. All of these descriptions help the reader to understand what the home is like, and how she sees the world. (42) Welty uses description, symbolism, irony to get across the theme. The theme of the story is selfishness, although it is portrayed through fear. Marian is apprehensive about going into the home, but maintains her state of mind and goes in. In the beginning, the story leads the reader to believe that she truly has compassion. Although, it is a lie, she is there only for points. The author is expressing self-interest. Fear is a part in life and to concur those fears is contentment, but running away is not concurring. Marian does not portray the best image of a kind, cheerful Campfire Girl. Welty further suggests in this story that fake charity can destroy the very humanity it pretends to acknowledge and uphold. People like Marian acting either out of duty or for personal advantages have created the Home and the conditions that have made the inhabitants irritable and unlovable. Marian left the women more lonely and distraught than she found them. This kind of charity is uncharitable indeed.

Bill of Rights and Amendments Essays - James Madison, Free Essays

Bill of Rights and Amendments Essays - James Madison, Free Essays Bill of Rights and Amendments Bill of Rights and Amendments The United States of America is by far the most successful Republic governed country in the world and has managed to survive for over 223 years. What has made the United States such a success is the foundation that the framers created, the United States Constitution. The framers knew that with time the needs of the people would evolve due to changes in society, so regulations in the Constitution would need to be adjusted or expanded for the changing times. The adjustments are called Amendments. Since 1788 only Twenty-Seven Amendments have been ratified and added to the United States Constitution and amazingly enough ten of them known as the Bill of Rights were proposed under the First Congress. As society continues to evolve the Constitution may need to update existing regulations or improvements may need to be made and added to cover issues that were not originally covered in the Constitution such as: abolishment of slavery, the right to vote for all American citizens including women and former slaves, taxes, and right to citizenship just to name a few. Without the admission of amendments the Constitution would be in danger of becoming less relevant to the needs of modern society; for example after the civil war the slaves were free, but where in the constitution did it make it illegal to have slaves? Where did it state that they had a right to vote? It didn?t, that is why the Thirteenth Amendment which abolished slavery was added in 1865, then in 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment was added and in Section 1 reads: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous conditi on of servitude. This now declares their freedom and their rights to vote in the Constitution. The framers knew that amendments would need to be added, that is why they are covered in Article V in the Constitution. Amending the Constitution is not an easy or quick process. There are two significant steps in the Amendment process. The first step in the process is the proposal, in which either two-thirds of both of the houses of Congress have to agree and deem it necessary to propose a new amendment or two-thirds of the legislature from the fifty states calls a Constitutional Convention to propose Amendments. Once Amendments have been proposed they will then need to be ratified, this too can happen one of two ways. An amendment can be ratified when three-fourths of the legislature from the states vote in favor of the amendment or Congress can direct a ratifying convention where three-fourths of the convention has to vote in favor of the amendment; all but the twenty-first amendment have been ratified by the state legislatures. The first 10 amendments known as The Bill of Rights are the most important amendments in the Constitution. When the framers were drafting the Constitution their primary focus was establishing a strong and effective federal government, since this was their main focus the Constitution addressed a very limited number of rights for the people. The framers, and notably James Madison, the principal architect, believed that the Constitution protected liberty primarily through its division of powers. ("The Bill Of Rights: Its History And Significance", n.d). This made the Anti-Federalist who opposed the Constitution very uncomfortable; they feared that a large central government would not be any different than being ruled by a monarchy, their liberties were being threatened and they believed that if the framers really cared about their personal liberties and individual rights they would have been covered in the verbiage of the Constitution. Because of the Anti-Federalist concerns and their d isdain for the Constitution the Federalist became concerned about the ratification of the Constitution, due to their concern they agreed to add several amendments known as the Bill of Rights which were written by James Madison. Without the addition of the Bill of Rights the Constitution may not have been ratified. The Bill of Rights are precious and they have become an ethical code for America, because of these 10 amendments, the United States has

Places Named After Old Country Geographic Locations

Places Named After Old Country Geographic Locations What is the geographic connection between the province Nova Scotia in Canada and French New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean? The connection is actually in their names. Have you ever wondered why in many of the worlds centers of immigration like the United States, Canada, and Australia there are plenty of settlements with names like New Denmark, New Sweden, New Norway, New Germany, etc.? Even one of the Australian states is named New South Wales. These many new geographical places - New York, New England, New Jersey and many others in the New World are actually named after the original ones in the Old World. After the discovery of the Americas a necessity for new names appeared. The blank map needed to be filled in. Very often the new places were named after European geographical locations by just adding new to the original name. There are possible explanations for this choice a desire for commemoration, a feeling of homesickness, for political reasons, or due to the presence of physical similarities. It often turns out that the namesakes are more famous than the original ones, yet there a few new places that have disappeared in history. Famous "New Places New York, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico are the four new states in the United States. New York City, which gave the name to the state, has an interesting story. The English city of York is the father of its more famous new version. Before becoming part of the British North American colonies, New York was the capital of the colony known as New Netherland and bore the thematic name New Amsterdam. The small county Hampshire in the south of England gave its name to New Hampshire, in New England. The British crown dependency Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, is the original of New Jersey. Only in the case of New Mexico, there is no transatlantic connection. Its name has an easily explained origin related to the history of the U.S. and Mexico relations. There is also the case of New Orleans, the largest city in Louisiana, which historically has French origins. Being part of New France (present-day Louisiana) the city was named after an important man - the Duke of Orleans, Orleans is a city in the Loire valley in Central France. Famous Old Places Speaking of Spain, we have to mention the idea of New Spain, another example of a former overseas territory named after a country. New Spain consisted of the present-day Central American countries, some Caribbean islands and southwestern parts of the U.S. Its existence lasted exactly 300 years. Officially, it was established immediately after the collapse of the Aztec Empire in 1521 and ended with Mexicos independence in 1821. Other "Old" and "New" Connections The Romans labeled Scotland as Caledonia so the present French New Caledonia island in the Pacific is the new version of Scotland. New Britain and New Ireland are islands in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. The name New Guinea itself is chosen because of the natural similarities between the island and the Guinea region in Africa. The outdated British colonial name of the Pacific nation Vanuatu is New Hebrides. The old Hebrides are an archipelago off the west coast of Great Britain. Zealand is the largest Danish island on which the capital city Copenhagen is located. However, the country of New Zealand is definitely a more famous place than the European original. New Granada (1717-1819) was a Spanish viceroyalty in Latin America encompassing the territories of modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. Granada is a city and an important historical place in Andalusia, Spain. New Holland was Australias name for almost two centuries. The name was suggested by the Dutch seafarer Abel Tasman in 1644. Holland is presently part of the Netherlands. New Australia is a utopian settlement established in Paraguay by Australian socialists at the end of the nineteenth century.

PPQ PARTs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

PPQ PARTs - Essay Example The company therefore needs to determine how it will provide a safe work environment for its employees, jobs that are rewarding, stable employment, equitable pay in exchange for a positive work attitude and outstanding performance on the job (Heizer & Render 2006, p33). The fact that PPQ wants to increase the number of facilities would indicate that there is an increase in demand for its products in other markets. Whether or not that is the case the company needs to market its products in those areas. In selecting its location the company needs to design and build economical and efficient facilities that will be capable of yielding high value to not only the company but other stakeholders including employees and the community in which the facilities will be located. In order to do carry out its operations effectively the company will require competent and experienced staff that will be able to deal with customers at the various locations. In will be expanding into different countries and therefore different environments. Building a multicultural and diverse labor force is therefore important. Therefore, PPQ need to carry out an assessment of its management staff to determine whether they possess the skills necessary to deal with multiculturalism and diversity. It is important that they understand what diversity means. Munjal and Sharma their paper â€Å"Managing Multiculturalism & Diversity in Organizations † (n.d.) states that: Managers usually see affirmative action and equal employment opportunity as centering on minorities and women; the diversity here includes race, gender, creed, and ethnicity but also age, background, education, function, and personality differences. The objective not to assimilate minorities and women into dominant white male culture but to create a dominant heterogeneous culture. They will be dealing with employees and customers from different parts of the world and it is important that they understand not only the culture but h ow it can lead to competitive advantage. Rick Bobrow, America’s CEO (qtd. in Black Enterprise, 2001) states: Diversity is fundamental to our business. But it is also fundamental to our view of how we do business. To help our clients, and ourselves, achieve success, we have to leverage the different ideas, backgrounds, and values of all our people. When people of all ethnic groups are represented at all levels of the firm, we are better able to perform in a global environment, attract the best talent, and ensure that our clients are served well. Management has to be of the right caliber to be able to do this effectively. It is therefore important that the recruitment exercise is properly carried out so that the right persons (with the necessary skills and talent) are chosen to fill positions. Another of PPQ’s current weakness is its low profit margin. Additionally, its share of the market is very low. Although no information was provided on the market share of

Persuasive Speech Assignment on seat belt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Persuasive Speech Assignment on seat belt - Essay Example I also referred to my speaker notes occasionally and glance at the presentation regularly to ensure that I was presenting the right content for each slide. So as to make the presentation more interesting, I ensured that I gesticulated. I also made use of my other body parts in application of whatever I have previously learnt about non-verbal communication. One of the things that make the audience get bored during a presentation is monotony. However good the content of the presentation may be, the audience will be distracted by a monotonous voice. In order to ensure that my presentation overcame monotony, I varied my tone and volume. My presentation was well organized. Each slide was not overcrowded with words. Also, each slide was dedicated to a subtopic. Essentially, this was done to ensure that my presentation and speech was well organized and flowed seamlessly. I believe that my presentation was a great

Ancient chinese civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ancient chinese civilization - Essay Example Ancient China had given the world a lot of useful inventions too, such as the use of paper, the introduction of currency and coinage, its discovery of gunpowder, a cultural heritage like the Great Wall of China built by the emperor Shih Huang Ti whose fairly-recent discovery of his impressive funerary arrangements in a big burial compound containing an impressive array of a terra-cotta army consisting of an 8,000+ life-sized warriors, 400 horses and 100 chariots had astounded archaeologists and historians alike, and the first use of a bureaucracy in the form of civil service to administer an empire. It is said Shih Huang Ti searched for an elixir of youth to attain immortality but failed. The main concern of Confucius was to attain social order and political stability. This is because the period in which he lived was marked by chaos and constant warfare among the various states and people were displaced and inconvenienced as innocent victims of ambitions of various warlords. The key to a peaceful existence, according to the analysis of Confucius, was a return to the virtues of humanity and benevolence in social relations by reciprocity. Confucius asserted that the younger generations must profess filial obedience as a form of duty, one that is forced or emphasized on them as dutiful sons and daughters, because children brought up this way will also end up as benevolent citizens when they turn into adulthood. This is what Confucius meant when he said, â€Å"a young mans duty is to be filial to his parents at home, and respectful to his elders abroad, to be circumspect and truthful . . .† [I:6] because young people who exercise filial piety also are expected to care for their parents when these parents grow old. Filial piety and benevolence translate into kindness for parents and all old people, caring for them always and sensitive to their needs, while benevolence in the larger social sphere will reduce

The Importance of Early Childhood Education in the Development of Jamaican Children Essay Example for Free

The Importance of Early Childhood Education in the Development of Jamaican Children Essay As parents of young children, we often ponder which Early Childhood Program to enroll our children in. At one point in time they were non-existent. As early childhood educators emerged, programs were created. Interestingly, the Montessori approach is a specialized method created by Maria Montessori. The Montessori Method; which is widely used today was created with the focus of children learning from their environment (Morrison, 2009). Montessori’s are not aimed at talented and gifted children; this method is expressed in public and private school settings in conjunction with children attending up to age 18. In addition, Montessori serves the needs of children of all levels of mental and physical abilities (Stephenson, 2011). In 1870, Maria Montessori, the first Italian woman to secure a medical degree (Stephenson, 2011). With her degree she entered the fields of psychiatry, education and anthropology. She had a passion for young minds. She believed that children educate themselves. Montessori became a physician in 1896, attending the University of Rome psychiatric clinic. During her tenure, Dr. Montessori developed an enthusiasm for the study of children with special needs; where she also spoke on their behalf. Twenty-six years later, Maria relocated to San Lorenzo, Rome to study children without disabilities. There she observed fifty children which resulted in success. This success was recognized and spread all over, attracting travelers from all over to this remarkable case study. An in-depth explanation of what a Montessori truly is, Stephenson (2011) clearly states: A Montessori can be defined as a revolutionary method of observing and supporting the natural development of children. Montessori educational practice helps children develop creativity, problem solving,  critical thinking and time-management skills to contribute to society and the environment, and to become fulfilled persons in their particular time and place on Earth. The basis of Montessori practice in the classroom is mixed age group (3 ages- 6 ages in one class), individual choice of research and work, and interrupted concentration. Group lesson are seldom found in a Montessori classroom, but learning abounds. Since Montessori’s death, educators all over continue to implement and notice this method has worked all over the world with all kinds of children (wealthy, poor, gifted, normal, learning disabled, etc.) and environments (from slums, to elegant schools, etc. ). Maria agreed that when physical, mental, spiritual and emotional needs are met, children glow with excitement and a drive to play and work with enthusiasm, to learn, and to create. In conjunction, children exude a desire to teach, help and care for others and for their environment (Stephenson, 2011). During her lectures and travels, Maria Montessori was nominated twice for the Nobel Peace Prize. In addition to the explanation of a Montessori, the following is the Montessori Method. This method meticulously exemplifies how Montessori educators implement the method in various programs across the country. There are five basic principle associated with the Montessori Method. They are: Respect for the child, The Absorbent child, Sensitive periods, The Prepared environment and Auto-education. Respect for the children occurs when educators assist children with new projects, allowing them to learn for themselves. Giving the child room to explore their boundaries flourishes abilities for positive self- esteem (Morrison, 2009). Montessori also believed having respect for the child is a key element. She said (Morrison, 2009), As a rule, however we do not respect children. We try to force them to follow us without regard to their special needs. We are overwhelming with them, and above all, rude; and then we expect them to be submissive and well-behaved, knowing all the time how strong is their instinct of imitation and how touching their faith in and admiration of us. They will imitate us in any case. Let us treat them, therefore, with all the kindness which we would wish to help to develop in them. When it comes to a child’s mind; it can be described as a sponge. Their young minds continuously â€Å"absorb† information. Unintentionally, children cannot help but learn. In their own environments and in shared environments. The Absorbent mind refers to the idea that the minds of young children are receptive to and capable learning (Morrison, 2009). From birth to age six, these are the most important years of the absorbent mind. Shortridge (2003), compiled an essay about the absorbent mind in which Montessori states that the child learns by unconsciously taking in everything around him and actually constructs himself. Using his senses, he incarnates, or creates himself by absorbing his environment through his very act of living. Morrison (2009) adds, â€Å"What they learn depends greatly on their teachers, experiences, and environments†(Ch. 9). In the sensitive periods; learning is most likely to occur (Morrison, 2009). In our text (2009), Montessori recalls a sensitive period: A sensitive period refers to a special sensibility which a creature acquires in its infantile state, while it is still in a process of evolution. It is a transient disposition and limited to the acquisition of a particular trait. Once this trait or characteristic has been acquired, the special sensibility disappears. It is imperative for an educator to observe and ascertain sensitivity periods and sustain the proper environment. Many theorists believe this stage is considered the critical period. The critical period and the sensitive period contain a sensitive difference. The critical period mildly describes a child not receiving the â€Å"right† or enough stimuli during the window; they will be stagnant in learning in the future (Oswalt, 2008). However, theorists who believe in the sensitive period noted it would post difficulty for the childcare giver to attain what was not learned during the learning window of opportunity, still there is room for the child to learn at a later time (Oswalt, 2008). In a prepared environment it is believed children learn best. In an environment where children can do things for themselves; children are at liberty to explore materials of their own choosing. Within these prepared environments, are six principles: Freedom, Structure and Order, Beauty, Nature and Reality, Social environment and Intellectual environment (Irinyi, 2009). Freedom environment includes freedom of movement, the child must experience freedom of exploration. All of these freedom movements lead to a greater freedom (Irinyi, 2009). Structure and order in the classroom mirrors the sense of structure and order in the universe (Irinyi, 2009). A beautiful environment should suggest harmony and should invite the worker to work. Nature and reality strongly influenced Maria Montessori and believed children should actively interact with nature. Social environment promotes the freedom of children socially interacting with one another and also develop a sense of compassion and empathy for others (Irinyi, 2009). Briefly, auto-education is last principal of the Montessori Method. The prepared environment also stimulates auto-education which is the idea that children teach themselves through appropriate materials and activities (Morrison, 2009). Children who decide to â€Å"work† in the â€Å"kitchen† are able to role play as chefs and are able to make themselves and their peers something to eat. In the Early Childhood Education field, Montessori’s are not the only education program developed to focus on children’s developments. The High- Scope theory is based on Piaget, constructivism, Dewey and Vygotsky (Morrison, 2009). Children help establish curriculum. Experiences guide the programs of studies in promoting children’s active learning (Morrison, 2009). The Reggio Emilia approach founded by Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994), a city in northern Italy, based on the philosophy and practice; that children are active of their own knowledge (Morrison, 2009). Curriculum is project oriented and learning is active. The Waldorf Education founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) highlights the teaching of the whole child-head, hands, and heart (Morrison, 2009). Steiner strongly believed that education should be holistic. The study of myths, lores, and fairy tales promotes the imagination and multiculturalism (Morrison,2009). Combining all of the early childhood education programs, there is no one perfect curriculum. Today, there is a combination of all four education types being taught in school districts. Each approach is important and critical. Personally, I would agree that The Montessori Method best serves the needs because this approach allows children to grow and learn at their pace. They are not forced to retain information if the brain is not processing at the pace that is requested and required for children. Also, the environment plays a serious role in this learning and teaching process. If a child is in a stressed environment, the child is less likely to participate and socialize with his or her peers. When a child is in a peaceful or beautiful environment, the child is more inclined to interact with the world with a clear mind. Indeed, while there are multiple Early Childhood Education programs available, the Montessori Method was created with the focus of children learning from their environment (Morrison, 2009). Not to say that this particular method is paramount, but beneficial results have emerged from this program. In Head Start facilities, High- Scope, Reggio Emilia Approach, the Montessori Method and the Waldorf Education should be integrated in facilities today and for the future. References Irinyi, M. (2009, March 18). Principles of the montessori prepared environment. Retrieved from http://montessoritraining. blogspot. com/2009/03/principles-of-montessori-prepared. html Morrison, G. S. (2009). Early childhood education today. (11th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Oswalt, A. (2008, January 17th). Senisitive periods in mental health. Retrieved from http://www. mentalhelp. net/poc/view_doc. php? type=docid=7923cn=28 Shortridge, P. D. (2003). The absorbent mind and the sensitive periods. Retrieved from http://www. pdonohueshortridge. com/children/absorbent. html Stephenson, S. M. (2011). The international Montessori index. Retrieved from http://www. montessori. edu.

Definition Of Motivation Business Essay

Definition Of Motivation Business Essay One of the oldest, and most difficult, areas in psychology is the fundamental problem of why people are motivated to do anything at all, and if they do something, why that and not something else. The issue is really two fold; the nature of the driving force (where it comes from: what are its properties) and the direction and maintenance of the drive (what affects does it have on individual behavior). For Westwood (1992:288), motivation, as a concept, has certain specific features: Motivation is an internal state experienced by the individual. Whilst external factors including other people, can affect a persons motivational state, it develops within the individual and is unique to that individual. The individual experiences a motivational state in a way that gives rise to a desire, intention and pressure to act. Motivation has an element of choice, intention or willingness. That is, the individual experiencing a state of arousal (externally or internally generated), responds by choosing to act in a way and at a level of intensity that they determine. Action and performance are a function, at least in part, of motivation. It is therefore important in our ability to predict and understand actions and performance. Motivation is multi-faceted. It is a complex process with several elements and the possibility of multiple determinants, options and outcomes. Individuals differ in terms of their motivational state and the factors that affect it. Furthermore, the motivational state of an individual is variable; it is different across time and across situations. (John Arnold et al, 1995) There are two types of motivation as originally identified by Hertzberg et al (1957): Intrinsic motivation-The self generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility, autonomy (freedom to act), scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunities for advancement. Extrinsic motivation-what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards, such as increased pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticisms. 2.2 The process of motivation Motivating other people is about getting them to move in the direction you want them to go in order to achieve a result. Motivating yourself is about setting the direction independently and then taking a course of action, which will ensure that you get there. Motivation can be described as goal -directed behavior. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward-one that satisfies their needs. But managers still have a major part to play in using their motivating skills to get people to give of their best, and to make good use of motivational processes provided by the organization. To do this it is necessary to understand the process of motivation-how it works and the different types of motivations that exist. A need -related model of the process of motivation is shown in the figure below. This suggests that motivation is initiated by the conscious or unconscious recognition of unsatisfied needs. These nee ds create wants, which are desires to achieve or obtain something. Goals are then established which is believed will satisfy these needs and wants and a behaviour pathway is selected which is expected will achieve the goal. If the goal is achieved, the need will be satisfied and the behaviour is likely to be repeated, the next time a similar need emerges. If the goal is not achieved, the action is less likely to be repeated. This process of repeating successful behaviour or actions is called reinforcement or the law of effect (Hull, 1951). It has, however, been criticized by Allport (1954) as ignoring the influence of expectations and therefore constituting hedonism of the past. (Michael Armstrong, 2001: 155). Attain Goal Need Take Action Establish Goal Figure2.1: The motivation process (Source: Michael Armstrong, 2001:155). 2.3 Approaches to motivation 2.3.1 Theory X and Theory Y Douglas Mc Gregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled theory Y. Under Theory X, the 4 assumptions held by managers are: Employees inherently dislike work, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and display little ambitions. In contrast to these negative views the nature of human being, Mc Gregor listed 4 positive assumptions that he called Theory Y: Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. The average person can learn to accept, even seek responsibility. The ability to make innovative decision is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management position. Mc Gregor himself held to the being that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such idea as participate in decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good go up relation as approaches that would maximize an employees job motivation. Critics of the theory: Unfortunately, there is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid or that accepting theory y assumptions and altering ones acknowledgment will lead to more motivated workers. (Stephen P. Robins, 1993: 208) 2. 3.2 Human Relation Approach The main emphasis of the classical approach was on structure and the formal organization as the basic for achieving high levels of work performance. But during the 1920s greater attention began to be given to the social factors at work and to the behaviour of people in the organization that is human relations. The major impetus to the human relations approach came with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric company in America (1924 1932). The Hawthorne Studies have been subject to criticize and to a number of different interpretation. But however, the results are regarded; the studies have important implications for organizational structures. They generated new ideas on social interaction, output restrictions and individuals within work groups. The human relations approach marked a change in emphasis away from the precision of scientific management and led to ideas on increasing productivity by humanizing the work organization with the human relations approach, recognition was given to the importance of the informal organization which will always be seen as individuals and members of a social group, with their behaviour and attitude as the key effectiveness. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:59) 2.3.3 Scientific Management Approach The scientific management movement was pioneered by the American, Frederic W. Taylor. He saw workers who do manual work to be motivated by money, the greedy robot, and to be too stupid to develop the one best way of doing the task. The role of management was to analyze scientifically all the tasks to be done and then to design jobs to eliminate wasted time and motion. The application of scientific management resulted in significant productivity increases. However, the emphasis on specialization was to become one of the targets of critics of scientific management. They argued, that specialization was ultimately inefficient but, more importantly; it did not allow people to achieve their full potential at work. (Henry L. Tosi et al, 1994:9) Scientific management is often referred to as a machine theory model. It adopts an instrumental view of human behaviour together with the application of specialization and standard procedures of work. Workers were viewed less as isolated individuals and more as units of production to handle in much the same way as machines. The scientific study of work can lead to jobs becoming repetitive, boring and requiring little skills. The ideas behind scientific management have been largely discredited by subsequent management writers. There has been strong criticism of scientific as representing close management control over workers. By removing decisions about their work is cairned out, by division of labour, and by dictating precise stages and methods for every aspect of work performance, management could gain control of the actual process of work. The rationalization of production processes and division of labour tends to result in de-skilling of work, and thus may be a main strategy of ma nagement. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:56) 2.4 The motivation theories 2.4.1 Content theory 2.4.1.1 Maslow theory Without doubt the best-known theory is of Maslow (1954). Maslow supposed that people have 5 types of needs that are activated in a hierarchical manner, and are then aroused in a specific order such that a lower order need must be satisfied before the next higher order- need is activated. Once need is met, the next highest need is the hierarchy is triggered and and so forth. Higher Order order of progression Self-actualisation needs Self-esteem needs Social needs Safety needs Psychological needs Lower Order Figure2.2: Maslows need hierarchy Source: A.H.Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition, New York: Harper Row, 1976) Psychological needs Psychological needs are the lowest-order most basic needs and refer to satisfying fundamental biological drives such as the need for food, air, water and shelter. To satisfy these positive needs, organizations must provide employees with a salary that allows them to afford adequate living conditions e.g. food and shelter. Employees need sufficient rest breaks to allow them to meet their psychological needs. Organizations may provide exercise and physical fitness facilities for their employees, because providing such facilities may also be recognized as an attempt to help employees stay healthy by gratifying their psychological needs. Safety needs Safety needs are activated only after physiological needs are met. Safety need refer to needs for a secure, predictable, habitable, non-threatening environment free from threats of either physical or psychological harm. Organizations may provide employees with life and health insurance plans, opportunity for savings, pensions, and safety equipment and secure contracts that enable work to be performed without fear and harm. Social needs Social needs are activated after both physiological and safety needs. They refer to the need to be affiliative-to have friends, to be liked, included and accepted by other people. Friends, relations and work colleagues help meet social needs, and organizations may encourage participation in social events such as office parties, sports days, competitions which provide an opportunity for meeting these needs. Many organizations spend vast sums of money on facilitate for out-of-work hours activities for their staff so that people in the same organization, but different sections or departments, may meet, chat and affiliate. Esteem needs Esteem needs refer to a persons desire to develop self-respect and to gain the approval of others. The desires to achieve success have personal prestige and are recognized by others all fall into this category. Companies may have awards, prizes or banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Printing articles in company newsletters describing an employees success, assigning private parking spaces, and posting signs identifying the employee of the month are all examples of things that can be done to satisfy esteem. The inflation of job titles could also be seen as an organizational attempt to boost employees self-esteem. Self-actualizations needs Self-actualization needs refer to the need for self-fulfillment-the desire to become all that one is capable of being, developing ones potential and fully realizing ones abilities. By working to their maximum creative potential, employees who are self-actualised can be an extremely valuable asset to their organizations. Individuals who have become self-actualised supposedly work at their peak, and represent the most effective use of an organizations human resources. Critics of the theory: The theory has enthusiascally applied to the world of work. However, few have been able to find evidence of the five-(or two-) their system (Mitchell Nowdgill 1976), and there is precious little evidence that needs are activated in the same order. Furthermore, it is not certain how, when or why the gratification of one stimulates or activates the next highest category (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.1.2 Adelfers ERG theory Growth needs Existence needs Relate dress needs Least concrete Most concrete Figure 2.3: Adelfers continuum of ERG needs. (Paul M.Muchinsky, 1993) Adelfers ERG theory is much simpler than Maslows theory, in that Adelfer specifies that there are only 3 types of needs, but that they are not necessarily activated in any specific order. Further, according to this theory any need may be activated at any time. The 3 needs specified by ERG theory are existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs These are material and are satisfied by environmental factors such as food, water, pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions. Relatedness needs These involve relationship with significant others, such as co-workers, superiors, subordinates, family and friends. Growth needs These involve the desire for unique personal development. They are met by developing whatever abilities and capabilities are important to the individual. Critics of the theory: ERG theory suggests that, although basic categories of need do exist, they are not exactly as specified by Maslow. The theory has not attracted as much attention as Maslow theory, but seems a reasonable modification of it. However, like Maslow theory it is potentially rather difficult to test (Furnham, 1992). 2.4.1.3 Hertzbergs two-factor theory According to the two factors theory, people have two major types of needs. The first of these Hertzberg called hygiene needs, which are influenced by the physical and psychological conditions in which people work. Hertzberg called the second set of needs motivator needs, and described them as being very similar to the higher order needs in Maslows (1954) need hierarchy theory. Hertzberg at al. (1959) claimed that different types of outcomes or rewards satisfied these two types of needs. Hygiene needs were said to be satisfied by hygiene factors or dissatisfiers, such as supervision, interpersonal relation, physical working conditions, salary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits and job security. When these factors are unfavorable, the job dissatisfaction is the result. Conversely, when hygiene factors are positive, such as when worker perceive that their pay is fair and that their working conditions are good, than barriers to job satisfaction are removed. However, the fulfillment of hygiene needs cannot by itself result in job satisfaction. Unlike hygiene needs, motivation needs are fulfilled by what Hertzberg et al. (1959) called motivator factors or satisfiers such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility and advancement. According to the theory, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are those that satisfy an individuals need for self-actualization (self-fulfillment) in their work, and it is only from the performance of their task that individuals can enjoy the reward that will reinforce their aspirations. Compared to hygiene factors, which results in a neutral state (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) when present, positive motivator factors result in job satisfaction. Critics of the theory: Attractive though the theory is, it has little empirical support. There is no doubt attributable to the fact that various methodological errors were introduced in the early theory-testing work. These included the real possibility that all the results were the result of classic attribution errors, such that personal failure is attributed externally (to hygiene factors) and success internally (to motivator factors). Secondly, the theory testing work was nearly all done on white-collar workers (accountants and engineers) who are hardly representive of the working population. 2.4.1.4 McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory The need for achievement underlies the higher levels of Maslows hierarchy and also one of Hertzbergs motivating factors. The importance of achievement is emphasised by Mc Lellands, who has developed a theory of motivation which is noted in culture. The work of Mc Lelland is based on the concept of 3 main sets of needs and socially developed motives: The need for Affiliation The need for Power; and The need for Achievement People possess all 3 needs but the relative intensity of affiliation, power and achievement varies among individuals and different occupations. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992: 206) Those most interested in power seeks positions of control and influence, those for whom affiliation is most important seek pleasant relationship and enjoy helping others; achievement seekers want success, fear failure, are task oriented and self-reliant. These 3 needs are not mutually exclusive. Many people are well motivated by all 3, but invariably one area is predominant. The implication of the theory in practice are that managers can identify employees who are self-motivated, those who rely more on internal incentives and those who could increase their achievement drive through training. (Shaun Tyson et al, 2000: 15) Critics of the theory: Mc Lellands theory implies an individualistic approach to the motivation of staff. The behaviour and performance of work group is as important as for individual motivation. (Laurie J. Mullins, 1992:207) 2.4.2 Process theories 2.4.2.1 Equity theory Equity theories, borrowed by psychologists from economics (Adams 1965), views motivation from the perspective of the comparisons people make among themselves. It proposes that employees are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships among themselves and to change those relationships that are unfair or inequitable. Equity theory suggests that people make social comparison between themselves and others with respect to two variables-outcomes (benefits, rewards) and inputs (effort, ability). Outcomes refer to the things workers believe they and others get out of their jobs, including pay, fringe benefits or prestige. Inputs refer to the contribution employees believe they and others make to their jobs, including the amount of time worked, the amount of effort expended, the number of units produced, or the qualifications brought to the job. Not surprisingly, therefore workers may disagree about constitutes equity and inequity in the job. Equity is therefore a subjective, not objective, experience, which makes it more susceptible to being influenced by personality factors (Furnham 1992:139). Equity theory states that people compare their outcomes and inputs to those of others in the form of ratio. Specifically, they compare the ratio of their own outcomes and inputs to the ratio of other peoples outcomes and inputs, which can result in any of the 3 states: overpayment, underpayment, or equitable payment. Implication for managers: The management implications are two-fold: firstly that comparative pay and benefits between different groups, sections and levels in an organization, are a major source of motivation and demotivation; secondly, employees need to feel they are fairly dealt with -that they and their colleagues are rewarded equitably for their efforts. Critics of the theory: As one might expect, equity theory has its problems: how to deal with the concept of negative inputs; the point at which equity becomes inequity, and the belief that people prefer and value equity equality. Moreover, the theory is too individualistic. (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.2.2 Reinforcement theory These theories, for there are many, specify how a history of past benefits (or punishments), or reinforcements, modify behaviour so that future benefits will be secured. The direct application of behavioral modification principles to the work situation claims to provide procedures by which human performance can be shaped and altered. At the centre of behaviour modification is the concept of reinforcement contingency: the rate of performance will increase when valued outcomes (reinforcers) are made contingent on the performance. It makes no difference to the theory what the person needs, expects, values or wants, although these factors may impact on the differential power or effect of each reward (and punishment). Furthermore, people perform certain work-related acts that are subject to reinforcement (or punishment and extinction) contingencies. People work with a certain degree of effectiveness, and when a particular behavior result in a reward (there is reinforcement contingency bet ween, say, payment and work efficiency), performance improves. Learning theorists assert that all behaviour is shaped and sustained through the action of contingent reinforcement; work-related behaviours are simply special examples of this more universal phenomenon. (Furnham, 1992). Reinforcement and learning theories are among the oldest in psychology. There has long been a debate concerning the usefulness or otherwise of punishment as a strategy. Problems such as resentment and sabotage may accompany a managers use of punishment (negative reinforcement) is usually not effective, since it suppresses rather than eliminate undesirable responses. They also noted the more quickly reinforcement is given after the response, the more effective it becomes. Implication for managers: Jablonsky and De Vries (1972) have suggested the following guidelines for applying operant conditioning as a motivating technique: Avoid using punishment as a primary means of obtaining desired performance Positively reinforce desired behaviour and ignore undesired behaviour if possible. Minimize the time-lag between response and reinforcement Apply positive reinforcement frequently on a variable ratio schedule Determine environmental factors that are considered positive and negative by individual Critics of the theory: Being very practically oriented, it is very unclear what managers should do to motivate their staff if they are followers of learning theory. Sensitively, subtly and discretely applied, it works well, but sophisticated workforce is sometimes hostile to it. (John Arnold et al, 1995). 2.4.2.3 Expectancy theory Expectancy theory asserts that people are mostly motivated to work when they expect they will be able to achieve and obtain the things they want from their jobs. Expectancy theory characterizes people as rational, logical and cognitive beings, who think about what they have to do to be rewarded and how much the reward means to them before they perform their jobs. Expectancy theory specifies that motivation is the result of 3 different types of beliefs cognitions that people have. These are known as: Expectancy- The belief that ones effort will result in performance Instrumentality The belief that ones performance will be rewarded Valence- The perceived value of the rewards to the recipient Employee may believe that a great deal of efforts will result in getting much accomplished, whereas others believe there are other occasions in which hard work will have little effects on how much gets done. It is possible that even if an employee works hard and performs at a high level, motivation may falter if that performance is not suitably rewarded by the organization-that is if the performance was not perceived as instrumental in bringing about the rewards. If behaviour is not explicitly rewarded, people are unlikely to repeat it. Furthermore, even if employees receive rewards based on their performance, they may be poorly motivated if those so-called rewards have a low valence to them. Porter and Lawler Over the years, Porter and Lawler (1968) adapted and expanded the theory. According to this model, job performance is a multiple combination of abilities and skills, effort and role perceptions. If individuals have clear role perceptions, if they possess the necessary skills and abilities, and if they are motivated to exert sufficient effort, the model suggests that they will perform well. Abilities and skills refer to both physical and psychological characteristics. Role perceptions refer to the clarity of the job description and to whether individuals know how to direct their efforts towards effectively completing the task. Those who have clear perceptions of their role perceptions apply their efforts where they will count, and perform correct behaviours. Those who have incorrect role perceptions tend to spend much of their time in unproductive efforts that do not contribute to effective job performance. Expectancy Expectancy Instrumentality Extrinsic outcome / reward Outcome / Reward Satisfaction Performance Effort Intrinsic outcome / reward Perceived equity of outcomes / rewards Job design, Organizational policies and practice Ability and traits, Role clarity organizational supports, etc Figure 2.4: Porter and Lawlers expanded expectancy model Source: Adapted from Porter and Lawler (1968) Implication for managers: Arnold et al. (1991:176) argues that, if expectancy theory were correct it would have important implications for managers wishing to ensure that employees were motivated to perform their work duties: They would need to ensure that all 3 of the following conditions were satisfied: Employees perceived that they possessed the necessary skills to do their jobs at least adequately (expectancy) Employees perceived that if they performed their jobs well, or at least adequately, they would be rewarded (instrumentality). Employees found the rewards offered for successful job performance attractive (valence). Critics of the theory: Although some specific aspects of the Expectancy theory have been supported (particularly the impact of expectancy and instrumentality on motivation), others have not (such as the contribution of valence to motivation, and the assumption that expectancy, instrumentality and valence are multiplied.) Arnold et al. (1991) note how little attention the theory pays in explaining why an individual values or does not value particular outcomes: no concept of need is involved to address this question. The theory proposes that people should ask someone how much they value something, but not bother about why they value it. (John Arnold et al, 1995) 2.4.2.4 Goal Setting Theory This approach to motivation was pioneered by Ed Loche and his associate, starting in the 1960s and continuing with increasing strength and sophistication ever since. The above figure represents goal setting theory, and shows that the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influences by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which goals are set. In turn, those goals characteristics and attitudes are thought to determine behavioural strategies, which lead to performance within the constraints of ability knowledge of results (also called feedback) is thought to be essential to further refinement of behavioural strategies. Goal Setting Theory Participation in goal setting (Self-perceived) ability Financial incentive Goal commitment Goal acceptance Goal difficulty Goal specification Direction Intensity Persistence Strategies Knowledge of results Ability Performance Figure 2.5 Goal Setting Theory Source: Adapted from Psychology of work Behaviour by F. Landy. Copyright  © 1989, 1985, 1980, 1976. Brooks / Cole Publishing Company, a division of International Thomson Publishing Inc. By permission of the publisher. What does research say about goal setting? Some further comments can be made on the basis of research evidence first financial incentives can indeed enhance performance. Loche et al. (1981) report that this occurs either through raising goal level, or through increasing commitment to a goal. Second, and unsurprisingly, ability also affects performance. Third, research on goal setting has been carried out in a range of context and fourth, goal setting is magnificently deal about how managers can enhance the performance of their employees. Some other research has directly investigated specific potential limitations of goal setting. Earley et al. (1989) suggested that goal setting may be harmful where a task in novel and where a considerable numbers of possible strategies are available to tackle it. It seems that when people are tackling unfamiliar and complex tasks, goal setting can induce them to pay much attention to task strategy and not enough to task performance itself. Goal setting could be criticized in its early days for being a technology rather than a theory. It successfully described how goal focus behaviour, without really addressing why or through what process goals influenced behaviour. Furthermore, goal setting, suggests that people are most motivated by difficult tasks where success is (presumably) not certain. A continuing issue in goal setting concerns participation. Locke et al. (1981) concluded that there was no evidence from published research that participation in goal setting by the person attempting to achieve the goal produced better performance than if the goal was assigned to him or her by someone else. Kanfer et al. (1994) got students to attempt a simulated air traffic control task and repeated the findings that goal setting can harm performance of unfamiliar complex tasks. But they also found that giving people time to reflect on their performance between repeated attempts at similar tasks eliminate that effect. The breaks enabled them to devote intentional resources to their strategies without having simultaneously to tackle the task itself. (John Arnold et al, 1998) 2.5 Job satisfaction and motivation Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. The concept generally ref